Castration of Calves

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Castration of Calves

The castration of male calves is an important economic tool to increase profits in a beef enterprise. In a dairy enterprise, if male calves are being kept for meat or for draught oxen it is equally important that they be castrated.

Why castrate ?

•    Castrated males are more docile and less aggressive than entire (uncastrated) males. If males are being kept as draught animals castration makes them easier to train and handle.
•    There is higher demand for meat from steers (castrated males) than meat from bulls and steer meat fetches a higher price.
•    Castration eliminates unwanted breeding and allows the farmer to take control of his breeding programme.
•    Bulls incur higher costs in terms of paddocking, fencing etc to keep them confined.
•    Enhances safety for other animals and staff.

Castration should be:
•    Done at an early age
•    Done effectively
•    Done humanely

The earlier castration can be carried out the better it is for the calf and the farmer. Studies of the effects of castration on liveweight gains have been reported from many countries. In general, there are no differences in liveweight gains for bulls and steers in the 21 days following castration at one month of age. However, there are significant differences with castration at older ages. Ideally castration can be carried out as early as 2-3days of age. The maximum age of castration should be one month before weaning so that it is fully recovered before weaning. Weaning is a stressful period and if the calf also has to suffer the effects of castration weight gains could be significantly affected.

METHODS OF CASTRATION

Castration should be carried out in as clean an environment as possible. All equipment should be clean and sterile and in good working order. Castration causes acute pain to the animal and local anaesthetic should be used to minimise the pain.

Burdizzo (Bloodless castrator)

This is a bloodless method of castration using a specialised tool which cuts off the flow of blood to the testicles and causes them to be resorbed if done correctly.The calf should be standing with the tail held by the handler. Care must be taken not to break the tail. Injection of a local anaesthetic and non-steroid anti-inflammatory will minimise pain. The operator should check the burdizzo to ensure that it is clamping properly. Holding the testicles down and feeling to be sure that the spermatic cord is between the jaws of the burdizzo, the operator uses the burdizzo to clamp the cord of one testicles at a point halfway between the testicle and the junction of the belly wall and scrotum. The burdizzo is held with one hand on the far handle and the other handle resting on the knee of the operator. The free hand is used to ensure that the cord is securely between the jaws of the burdizzo and no part of the testicle is caught in the clamp. The jaws are closed and held firmly closed for 10 seconds. The same procedure is then carried out on the second testicle, at a point 1cm below the first clamp site.

Advantages and Disadvantages
• The burdizzo is the least painful of the three methods described.
• There is less reduction in weight gain in steers castrated by burdizzo than other methods.
• The process is time-consuming
• Calves younger than 1 month cannot be effectively castrated by burdizzo
• The procedure requires some level of expertise
• Castration can fail if the equipment is not working properly (‘sprung’) or if improper technique is used, resulting in incomplete crushing of the cord. This results in a ‘stag’ or ‘rig.’

Elastrator and rings

This is also a bloodless method, using an elastrator tool and rubber rings and can be carried out on younger calves, less than 3 weeks. The process also cuts off the blood supply to the testicle and causes the scrotum to drop off in 7 – 10 days. The calf should be restrained and a local anaesthetic given. The elastrator tool is expanded, stretching the rubber ring. Both testicles are placed through the rubber ring. The ring is released, encircling the spermatic cord in the scrotum, just above the testicles. The operator checks that both testicles are in place. If not, the ring is cut and the procedure repeated.

Advantages and Disadvantages
• The method is quicker than the burdizzo and surgical castration.
• The process is easier than the others described here.
• The procedure causes more pain to the calf than the burdizzo and the pain lasts for a much longer period.
• There is a possibility of clostridial infection and tetanus and it is recommended that calves be vaccinated against tetanus and quarter evil before castration if not from vaccinated dams.
• Castration can fail if the rings break or one testicle is missed or slips through the ring and is retained in the belly cavity, making the animal a ‘stag’.

Surgical Castration

This method is not bloodless and requires a sharp knife or scalpel. The procedure can be carried out on calves as young as 1 or 2 days old. The calf should be restrained and held down by a helper. Local anaesthetic and non-steroid anti-inflammatory pain relief should be given. The scalpel must be clean and sterile and the operator’s hands must be sterilised between calves to prevent the spread of infection. With the fingers, push the testicles up into the scrotum and cut off the lower third of the scrotum with the scalpel. Alternatively, cut an incision along the edge of the scrotum, low enough to allow drainage of the wound. With the fingers gently push the testicles down one at a time through the incision. With a scraping motion of the scalpel, the spermatic cord and blood vessel are severed as high as possible. Antiseptic powder or spray is applied to the wound and fly deterrent applied.An emasculator or burdizzo can be used before the procedure to limit bleeding.

Advantages and Disadvantages
• This is the only sure method of castration.
• Once both testicles are removed there is no chance of the calf becoming a stag.
• The method can be used on calves of any age.
• Older calves suffer more stress and take longer to recover.
• The wound heals quicker than that of the elastrator.
• The method causes more long term pan than the burdizzo.
• The process takes longer than ringing
• Because there is an open wound, there is more chance of infection and fly strike.

Aftercare and Welfare
•    The calves should be moved into a clean dry environment with their mothers if still unweaned.
•    The calves should be inspected closely for a 2 week period. Ringed calves should lose the scrotum within 10 days.
•    All calves should be checked for swelling, difficulty walking, infection and tetanus and appreopriate treatment given.
•    Wounds should be treated as required.
•    Local anaesthetic should be used for all methods and anti-inflammatories (non-steroid) used for burdizzo and surgical castration.
•    The castration of older males without the use of anaesthetic is inhumane and unethical.

Ref: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/beef/facts/07-029.htmGerrit Rietveld, Animal Care Specialist, OMAFRA, drew the diagrams.

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Horses

Care of Your Horse

General

Grooming

Grooming of the horses coat and mane and tail keeps it free of dirt and matting, which could become a site for parasite infestation and skin disease, or cause chaffing when the horse is tacked up and ridden. It allows the owner to check the general health and condition of the horse and also develops the trust and affection essential between horse and rider. Horses ridden regularly should be groomed daily before being ridden and brushed after riding, after the sweat has dried. Horses that are not being ridden or working should be groomed at least weekly.

Hooves

Hooves should be checked before and after each ride, or at least once a week (daily is ideal) for hoof disease or injury and to ensure that shoes are fitting properly. A hoof pick should be used to remove stones, mud, dirt and dead horn constituents. As horses hooves continue to grow they need to be checked by a qualified farrier every 4-6 weeks.

Teeth

Horses’ teeth grow throughout life, but once worn away or broken the horse is no longer able to eat properly, and in the wild would die. Commercial horse rations help to maintain tooth health, but teeth should be checked annually by your veterinarian, who may have to rasp sharp edges.

Exercise and Companionship

It is essential that horses are exercised and stimulated. They are social animals, enjoying the company of humans or other horses, and may form attachments with a cat or dog if there is no other companionship.

Nutrition

Horses are natural grazers and a large portion of their daily diet is made up of forage such as grazing or hay, of which they will consume 1 – 2% of their body weight daily. They will spend 16 – 18 hours a day eating and require small and frequent meals of concentrate feed. The type and amount of concentrate or grain fed will depend on factors such as age, pregnancy, body condition and work or exercise that the horse is required to do. Improper feeding such as over-feeding, spoilt food or a sudden change in diet can lead to complications such as colic or laminitis. Overfeeding young horses can result in growth disorders or osteochondrosis – a defect in the formation of cartilage. Ideally a horse should have access to pasture (1-3 acres/horse) with good pole fencing (NEVER barbed wire) which has been cleared of all potentially poisonous plants (eg lantana), debris and rubbish and checked for holes or large stones. Good quality roughage is vital in a horse’s diet. It should be available at all times. Water Horses will drink between 40 – 50 litres of water a day, more if exercising and must have constant access to clean fresh water. Bedding Horses should not be required to stand on very hard surfaces for extended periods of time, so the stable must be bedded with clean straw or dust-free wood shavings. These should be ‘mucked out’ at least once a day and all manure removed and disposed of by composting or burning. This helps to control internal parasites and flies by breaking the life cycle. Shelter Horses on pasture require shelter from wind, rain and sun. If natural shelter such as trees are not available a three sided shelter can be constructed. Horse blankets should be used in very cold weather, particularly for animals that are sick or very old.

Parasites

Although horses do pick up ticks, these should be quickly seen during regularly grooming and removed by hand or with tweezers. Some acaricides are registered for use on horses but read warning labels carefully.
NEVER USE AMITRAZ-BASED ACARICIDES ON HORSES.
EKTOBAN (cypermethrin) will kill ticks on horse and also help control flies and lice.
SUPADIP (Chlorfenvinphos) is also suitable for tick control. It is essential to control flies around the stable and the yard, particularly the bot fly. (See Fly Control)

Internal parasites such as strongyles (large and small), ascarids, pinworm and tapeworm can effect the health of your horse and a regular deworming programme with an approved anthelmintic such as DECTOMAX INJECTABLE is essential (See Endoparasites of Horses)

Vaccinations

All horses must be vaccinated for horse-sickness, tetanus and rabies. Depending on whether your horse will be traveling and racing or competing, there are other vaccinations required eg South Africa requires Equine Flu vaccination. Consult your veterinarian.

Horses

Colic in Horses

Colic is a serious condition in horses occurring mainly in stabled horses with scarce grazing. It is the most common cause of death in horses. Colic is not a single disease; it is used to describe any disease of the abdominal organs accompanied by severe pain.

Colic can be caused by any one of a number of conditions. Sometimes one condition will lead to another, e.g. obstruction causing bloat.

•    Over-eating, particularly of concentrate feed.
•    Fermentation of feed in the stomach, for whatever reason, with the resulting production of excess gas.
•    Inflammation of the digestive tract, especially the small intestine. This is usually accompanied by purging. This may be caused by internal parasites. (See Endoparasites of horses)
•    Obstruction in the digestive tract, usually the large intestine and often caused by sand eaten while grazing.
•    Twist in the intestine.
•    Bloat of the intestine (usually after an obstruction)
•    Disease of liver, kidneys or urethras.
•    Drinking extremely cold water, especially after working hard.
•    Horses that eat their bedding are often affected.

SYMPTOMS

•    Restlessness
•    Head back, looking at hind-quarters
•    Kicking at the belly
•    Stamping of the fore-legs
•    Teeth grinding
•    Pulse rate rises
•    Shivering
•    Lying down and rolling
•    Lying on the back with the legs in the air
•    Attempting to urinate unsuccessfully, with a wide-legged stance.
•    When the colic becomes severe – the horse will go down, throw its head around and may injure itself without appearing to feel the pain of the injury. It will break into a cold sweat and the mucous membranes of the eye and mouth will turn a dirty dark purple. At this stage the horse is very close to death. The colour of the mucous membranes is a good indicator of the severity of the condition. If they are still a clean-looking dark pink or red colour, it is not too severe. Once they turn dark red or purple, the situation is very serious. If the colic is caused by over-eating or an obstruction the symptoms are usually not so severe. The animal is uncomfortable and listless, lying down and getting up frequently. If the colic is caused by bloat the colic is severe. The animal is restless, walking, rolling and showing signs of extreme pain.

TREATMENT

Colic is a very serious, potentially fatal condition with severe pain and really needs the expertise of a veterinarian to deal with it. If the vet is not available or while waiting, there are some things the horse owner can do.
•    Remove any feed from your horse’s stall
•    If your horse is lying down and quiet it’s OK to leave them there
•    If they are repeatedly getting up and down, quietly walk your horse around until your veterinarian gets there
•    The vet will probably use an injectable narcotic to ease the severe pain.
•    Purgatives such as liquid paraffin or raw linseed oil to encourage purging may be given. If the horse is bloated – turpentine or liquid phenol may be added. This is best given by stomach tube.
•    The vet may give a purgative injection, but not in cases where the colic is caused by over-eating or inflammation of intestines.
•    If the horse is constipated, manual removal of faeces and enema will relieve constipation.
•    If colic is caused by twisting of intestines, or if the intestine has burst from bloat, there is no remedy.

Ref: Handbook of Stock Diseases; Monnig and Veldman http://horse-rehab.com/the-signs-of-colic-in-horses/

Horses

Correct Methods of Drenching and Stomach Tubing Horses

Drenching – giving a medicine or liquid preparation by mouth into the stomach of an animal.Most worm remedies (anthelmintics) are administered by drenching (dosing), as are preparations such as bloat treatments, treatment for diarhhoea and constipation and other medicines. Incorrect drenching can cause inhalation pneumonia, which is difficult to treat and can prove fatal. It is essential that the owner always follows manufacturers’ directions when administering any treatment by mouth. Always use the correct dose for the age and size of the horse. If a horse is weak or undernourished smaller doses should be used. Some horses will tolerate being drenched with a syringe and if so this method should be used. (See opposite.) This is a suitable method of giving oral medication and worm remedies. The syringe is pushed up against the side of the horse’s mouth, avoiding the teeth and the plunger slowly depressed to allow the liquid into the mouth. Many horses will not allow drenching with a syringe or bottle and in these cases a stomach tube will have to be used. This is a skilled procedure requiring expertise and should never be undertaken by inexperienced personnel. Usually the procedure will be done by a veterinarian. The stomach tube is a 3m long stiff, smooth tube with a 10-20cm outside diameter. The front end is rounded and a funnel is inserted for poring liquids at the back end. The tube is softer and more flexible than that used for cattle. Unlike with cattle, in horses the tube in inserted through the nasal cavity. Method The nostril (usually the left) is cleaned and a twitch applied to the upper lip. The point of the tube is inserted into the nostril. With the right forefinger and thumb the tube is held down on the floor of the nasal passage, while gently pushing the tube in with the right hand. The tube will travel through the nasal cavity for about 25cm before reaching the larynx and oesophagus. When the tube reaches the larynx the horse will swallow. By gently pushing the tube at exactly the same moment as swallowing it will pass through the pharynx into the oesphagus, another 7-100mm. If the horse does not make the reflex swallowing motion when the tube touches the larynx, it should be gently moved up and down against the larynx until the horse swallows. When the tube is pushed in it can be seen on the left side of the neck moving down the gullet in the groove just above the windpipe. If the horse coughs or chokes, or if the tube moves easily with no obstruction, it may have entered the windpipe by mistake. The tube should be gently withdrawn into the mouth and the procedure started again. Once the tube has reached the stomach, the end should be raised to a level above the horse’s throat and the liquid poured into the funnel. When all the liquid has drained into the stomach, the funnel end should be lowered to below the horse’s throat and the tube slowly withdrawn. There may be some bleeding from the nostril but this should be minimal and transitory and stop soon after the tube is removed. REF: Handbook of Stock Diseases; Monnig and Veldman www.equidblog.com

Horses

Endoparasites of Horses

All horses carry a worm burden many of which cause no damage to the host. However it is essential to control these internal parasites, as severe infestation can result in poor growth, unthriftiness and in extreme cases can prove fatal.

Ascarids Parascaris equarum

The horse swallows ascarid eggs, which hatch into larvae in the intestine. The larvae penetrate the intestinal wall and migrate to the liver and lungs. Their presence in the liver causes the animal to cough, expelling the larvae into the mouth, when they are reswallowed. On this second arrival in the intestine, the larvae mature into adults which can reach a length of 35cm. Foals are usually most affected. The symptoms include poor growth, potbelly, coughing. In extreme cases there may be diarrhoea, lung and liver damage, pneumonia, intestinal blockages and death.

Strongyles Strongylus sp. Redworm or bloodworm

The so-called large strongyles cause the most damage. Adults mate and lay eggs in the large intestine. The eggs are passed out in the faeces and hatch into infective, well-protected larvae in the grass or in the stable. The horse swallows the larvae in food or water. They burrow through various parts of the body, including the arteries of the intestine and the liver, before returning to the large intestine to mature into adults and reproduce.

Small strongyles have a similar life cycle, but cause less damage as they do not migrate through the organs of the body. They are the most common worm found in horses and only cause a problem when infestation is massive.

Symptoms of strongyles infestation can include diarrhoea, colic, decreased food efficiency and performance. There may be organ damage and intestinal blockages in extreme cases.

Pinworm Oxyuris Equi

These small worms do not cause damage of the intestinal tract. The female crawls out of the anus of the horse and lays her eggs in a sticky substance under the horse’s tail. It is this substance which causes extreme irritation to the horse. The animals may rub their tails and hindquarters until an open wound is caused.

Bots

Bots are not true helminths, but the larvae of the bot fly. The female fly lays her eggs on the coat of the horse. These eggs are ingested by the horse licking or nosing the site. The larvae hatch in the tongue, migrate down the oesophagus to the stomach where they mature. The maturing larvae attach to the lining of the stomach or small intestine causing erosion and ulcerations at the site of attachment. They develop for 10 – 12 months before being passed out in the faeces. The adult fly emerges after 1 – 2 months and the cycle begins again.

Tapeworm Anoplocephalidae

The intermediate host of the horse tapeworm is a small mite that lives in damp grass and is swallowed by the horse while grazing. The eggs hatch in the intestine of the horse and develop into the adult tapeworm. The tapeworm consists of a number of ‘segments’ each containing male and female reproductive organs, where the eggs are formed. As these egg-bearing segments mature, they become detached from the tapeworm and are passed out through the faeces which are then swallowed by the mites, continuing the cycle.

Horse tapeworms are not common and are difficult to detect as the eggs are not found in faeces samples. Symptoms include unthriftiness, rough coat, lethargy and loss of appetite.

Prevention and Control

• Remove manure regularly (at least once daily) from stables and dispose of it by composting or burning.

• Keeping yards clean, removing manure and litter.

• Routinely discing or harrowing in manure on pastures and paddocks

• Leaving paddocks empty for a period or rotating with ruminants, which have different parasites.

• Control of flies to prevent infestation by bots.

• Prevent horses from grazing wet grass where the mite carrying tapeworm eggs lives.

• Routine testing of dung samples to establish worm load and then judicious dosing with an approved anthelmintic.

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Castration of Calves

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Care of Your Horse

Colic in Horses

Correct Methods of Drenching and Stomach Tubing Horses

Endoparasites of Horses

Fly Control

Post-Mortem Techniques in Livestock

Zoonoses of Animals and Man

Bloat in Cattle and Sheep

Blue Tongue in Sheep

Correct Methods of Drenching – Sheep and Goats